Everything we test across water, air, surfaces, and biological contaminants.
6 analytes tested
Lead is a heavy metal that can enter drinking water through corroded pipes, faucets, and plumbing fixtures. No amount of lead is considered safe, especially for children and pregnant individuals.
Evidence indicates lead exposure can impair cognitive development in children, affect the nervous system, and contribute to cardiovascular issues in adults. The CDC and EPA emphasize that no safe blood lead level in children has been identified.
Older plumbing systems, lead service lines, brass fixtures, and solder used before 1986. Well water in areas with natural lead deposits.
EPA Action Level: 15 parts per billion (ppb). The EPA's Lead and Copper Rule requires action when levels exceed this threshold.
Arsenic can dissolve from natural deposits in rocks and soil, or from industrial and agricultural pollution. Long-term exposure to elevated levels is associated with various health concerns.
Research indicates chronic arsenic exposure is associated with increased risk of skin lesions, cardiovascular effects, and certain cancers. The EPA set the drinking water standard based on these health considerations.
Natural geological deposits, mining activities, industrial processes, agricultural runoff from pesticides, and pressure-treated wood.
EPA Maximum Contaminant Level (MCL): 10 ppb. WHO guideline: 10 micrograms per liter.
Mercury can enter water supplies from natural deposits, industrial discharges, or agricultural runoff. It can accumulate in the body over time, particularly affecting the developing nervous system.
Evidence shows mercury exposure can affect the nervous system, kidneys, and developing fetuses. The EPA established the drinking water standard to protect against these effects.
Industrial waste, mining operations, coal combustion, natural mineral deposits, and agricultural runoff containing mercury-based compounds.
EPA MCL: 2 ppb (inorganic mercury). More stringent limits apply for organic mercury forms.
Cadmium is a toxic metal that can leach into water from galvanized pipes, natural deposits, or industrial contamination. The body eliminates it very slowly, leading to accumulation over time.
Research indicates chronic cadmium exposure is associated with kidney damage and bone demineralization. The EPA standard aims to prevent these health effects.
Galvanized pipes, metal plating, battery manufacturing, mining, smelting operations, and phosphate fertilizers.
EPA MCL: 5 ppb. WHO guideline: 3 micrograms per liter.
Chromium-6 (hexavalent chromium) is the more toxic form that can contaminate drinking water through industrial pollution and natural deposits. It differs from chromium-3, an essential nutrient.
Studies suggest hexavalent chromium exposure may be associated with increased cancer risk and other adverse health effects. The EPA continues to evaluate health-protective standards for chromium-6 specifically.
Steel and metal manufacturing, leather tanning, wood treatment, paint pigments, and natural geological sources.
EPA MCL for total chromium: 100 ppb. Some states have set lower limits for hexavalent chromium (e.g., California: 10 ppb).
While copper is an essential nutrient, excessive exposure through drinking water can cause adverse effects. Copper typically enters water through corrosion of household plumbing.
Short-term exposure to high copper levels can cause gastrointestinal distress. Long-term exposure above the action level may cause liver or kidney damage in susceptible individuals.
Copper pipes, brass faucets and fixtures, corrosion of plumbing systems, natural mineral deposits, and agricultural runoff.
EPA Action Level: 1,300 ppb (1.3 ppm). The EPA's Lead and Copper Rule requires action when levels exceed this threshold.
18 analytes tested
ADONA is a per- and polyfluoroalkyl substance (PFAS) used as a processing aid in fluoropolymer production. It persists in the environment and can contaminate drinking water.
Limited human health data exists for ADONA. The EPA includes it in PFAS monitoring due to its structural similarity to other PFAS with known health concerns.
Fluoropolymer manufacturing facilities, industrial wastewater discharge, and areas near chemical plants using PFAS in production.
Currently under evaluation by EPA. No federal MCL established yet. Included in UCMR monitoring program.
GenX is a replacement chemical for PFOA used in fluoropolymer manufacturing. Despite being marketed as safer, evidence indicates it also persists in the environment and may pose health concerns.
Animal studies suggest GenX exposure may affect liver function, immune response, and development. The EPA is evaluating human health impacts as part of PFAS regulations.
Chemical manufacturing facilities using GenX as a PFOA replacement, industrial discharge, and contaminated groundwater near production sites.
EPA proposed health advisory under development. North Carolina set a state standard of 140 parts per trillion (ppt).
This is a PFAS compound used in industrial applications, particularly in chrome plating. It is part of the F-53B chemical family and persists in the environment.
Limited human data available. Detected in environmental monitoring, prompting inclusion in EPA Method 537.1 to better understand exposure patterns.
Chrome plating facilities, metal finishing operations, industrial wastewater, and contaminated groundwater near affected sites.
Under evaluation by EPA. No federal standard established. Included in monitoring to inform future regulatory decisions.
A PFAS compound from the F-53B family used in chrome plating and metal finishing. It is highly persistent and can contaminate water sources near industrial sites.
Emerging research on health effects. The EPA includes this compound in drinking water monitoring to assess exposure risks.
Metal plating operations, chrome finishing facilities, industrial discharge, and sites using PFAS-based surface treatments.
Currently under EPA evaluation. No federal MCL set. Subject to state-level monitoring and assessment.
PFBS is a short-chain PFAS used as a replacement for PFOS in various industrial and consumer applications. While considered less bioaccumulative than longer-chain PFAS, it remains persistent in water.
Animal studies suggest PFBS may affect thyroid function and reproduction. The EPA is evaluating appropriate health-protective levels.
Stain-resistant treatments, firefighting foam, metal plating, industrial surfactants, and wastewater from PFAS manufacturing.
EPA draft health advisory: 2,000 ppt. Some states have set lower guidance values. Included in EPA Method 537.1.
PFDA is a long-chain PFAS that bioaccumulates in organisms and persists in the environment. It has been detected in drinking water sources across the United States.
Studies indicate PFDA exposure may affect liver function, immune response, and developmental outcomes. The EPA considers it in broader PFAS regulatory actions.
Fluoropolymer manufacturing, industrial applications, firefighting foam, and bioaccumulation through the food chain.
Under EPA evaluation for drinking water standards. Detected in UCMR monitoring; reference levels being developed.
PFDoA is a long-chain perfluoroalkyl acid that accumulates in the environment and organisms. It is one of the longer-chain PFAS compounds monitored in drinking water.
Limited human data, but animal studies suggest potential effects on liver, development, and immune function. EPA monitoring informs future health assessments.
Chemical manufacturing, industrial processes using long-chain PFAS, and environmental accumulation from historical PFAS use.
No federal standard yet. Included in EPA Method 537.1 monitoring to assess exposure and inform regulations.
PFHpA is a medium-chain PFAS detected in drinking water and environmental samples. It shares structural similarities with PFOA and exhibits environmental persistence.
Research on health effects is ongoing. The EPA includes PFHpA in monitoring programs to better characterize exposure and risks.
Fluorochemical production, industrial discharge, firefighting foam, and consumer products with PFAS-based treatments.
Under EPA review. No federal MCL established. States are developing individual guidance as data emerges.
PFHxA is a short-chain PFAS increasingly used as a replacement for longer-chain compounds. Despite being marketed as safer, it persists in water and accumulates in the environment.
Emerging evidence suggests potential effects on liver and metabolic function. The EPA is assessing health-protective levels for drinking water.
Replacement chemical in industrial processes, consumer products, firefighting foam, and wastewater from manufacturing facilities.
EPA draft toxicity assessment in progress. Some European countries have set guidance values. Included in Method 537.1.
PFHxS is a PFAS compound structurally similar to PFOS. It bioaccumulates in humans and animals and has been widely detected in drinking water.
Studies indicate PFHxS may affect cholesterol levels, liver function, immune response, and thyroid hormones. EPA proposed drinking water limits in 2024.
Stain-resistant coatings, firefighting foam, chrome plating, industrial applications, and contaminated groundwater.
EPA proposed MCL: 10 ppt (part of the 2024 PFAS drinking water regulation). WHO under review.
PFNA is a long-chain PFAS with high environmental persistence and bioaccumulation potential. It has been detected in drinking water supplies nationwide.
Evidence indicates PFNA exposure is associated with effects on cholesterol, liver function, immune response, and birth weight. EPA included it in 2024 regulations.
Fluoropolymer production, industrial processes, non-stick cookware manufacturing, and environmental accumulation.
EPA proposed MCL: 10 ppt (2024 PFAS regulation). Health advisory levels continue to be refined based on emerging research.
PFOA is one of the most widely studied PFAS compounds. It was used extensively in non-stick cookware and industrial applications until voluntary phase-outs began in 2006. It persists indefinitely in the environment.
Extensive research links PFOA exposure to increased cholesterol, liver enzyme changes, decreased vaccine response, thyroid effects, pregnancy-induced hypertension, and certain cancers. The EPA finalized a strict drinking water standard in 2024.
Historical manufacturing of non-stick products, firefighting foam, water-resistant textiles, food packaging, and industrial discharge.
EPA finalized MCL: 4 ppt (2024). This is one of the strictest drinking water standards, reflecting health concerns.
PFOS is one of the most persistent and bioaccumulative PFAS compounds. Historically used in stain repellents and firefighting foam, it remains widespread in the environment despite phase-outs.
Research indicates PFOS exposure is associated with effects on cholesterol, liver function, immune response, thyroid hormones, and reproductive outcomes. The EPA established a strict drinking water standard in 2024.
Legacy firefighting foam use at military bases and airports, stain-resistant treatments, chrome plating, and contaminated groundwater.
EPA finalized MCL: 4 ppt (2024). Reflects the weight of evidence on health impacts and technological feasibility.
PFUnA is a long-chain perfluoroalkyl acid with high bioaccumulation potential. It is detected less frequently than shorter-chain PFAS but raises similar persistence concerns.
Limited human data, though structural similarity to other long-chain PFAS suggests potential for similar health effects. Included in monitoring to inform risk assessment.
Industrial fluorochemical production, environmental accumulation, and bioconcentration through food chains.
No federal MCL yet. EPA monitoring through UCMR and Method 537.1 to characterize exposure.
NMeFOSAA is a PFOS precursor that can break down into PFOS in the environment or human body. It has been used in surface treatments and industrial applications.
As a PFOS precursor, NMeFOSAA raises similar health concerns. The EPA monitors it to understand total PFOS exposure pathways.
Surface treatments, paper and textile coatings, and degradation of related PFAS compounds in the environment.
No separate federal standard. Considered in total PFAS exposure assessment. Included in Method 537.1 monitoring.
NEtFOSAA is another PFOS precursor compound found in water and environmental samples. Like NMeFOSAA, it can degrade into PFOS, contributing to overall exposure.
Potential to convert to PFOS raises similar health concerns. Monitoring helps assess complete PFAS exposure profiles.
Surface coatings, carpet treatments, food packaging, and environmental transformation of precursor chemicals.
No separate MCL. Part of comprehensive PFAS exposure evaluation. Detected through EPA Method 537.1.
PFTA is one of the longest-chain PFAS compounds included in drinking water monitoring. It exhibits high bioaccumulation potential and environmental persistence.
Very limited human health data. Included in monitoring due to structural similarity to other long-chain PFAS with documented health concerns.
Specialized industrial applications, environmental persistence of long-chain PFAS, and potential bioaccumulation.
No federal standard. Detected infrequently but monitored through EPA Method 537.1 to understand occurrence patterns.
PFTrDA is a long-chain PFAS that bioaccumulates and persists in the environment. Detection in drinking water prompts inclusion in comprehensive PFAS monitoring.
Limited toxicology data for humans. Long-chain structure suggests bioaccumulation potential similar to other PFAS of concern.
Industrial fluorochemical processes, environmental accumulation, and long-range transport in water systems.
Under EPA evaluation. No federal MCL set. Monitored to inform future regulatory actions and health assessments.
4 analytes tested
Lead-containing dust on surfaces poses a risk, especially to children who may ingest it through hand-to-mouth contact. Surface wipe testing measures lead levels on floors, windowsills, and other surfaces.
Lead dust is a primary exposure pathway for children. Evidence shows even low levels can impair cognitive development and affect behavior. The EPA and HUD set clearance levels to protect children.
Deteriorating lead-based paint, lead-contaminated soil tracked indoors, renovation disturbance, and friction surfaces like windows and doors.
EPA/HUD clearance levels: 10 micrograms per square foot (µg/ft²) for floors, 100 µg/ft² for windowsills (as of 2020).
Arsenic can accumulate on indoor surfaces from pressure-treated wood (CCA-treated), contaminated soil, or industrial sources. Surface testing identifies areas where arsenic dust may pose an exposure risk.
Arsenic exposure through surface contact and ingestion is associated with skin effects, cardiovascular concerns, and increased cancer risk over time.
Chromated copper arsenate (CCA) pressure-treated wood in decks and playsets, arsenic-contaminated soil, and industrial sites.
No federal surface standard. Some states reference soil-based limits. Testing helps identify elevated levels for comparison to background.
Cadmium on surfaces can result from deteriorating cadmium-plated items, certain paints and pigments, or contaminated dust. Children are particularly vulnerable to hand-to-mouth ingestion.
Cadmium exposure is associated with kidney damage and bone effects. Surface wipe testing identifies potential exposure pathways in homes.
Cadmium-plated hardware, certain paints and ceramics, jewelry, batteries, and industrial contamination.
No federal residential surface standard. Testing compared to typical household background levels and site-specific risk assessment.
Chromium on surfaces may come from pressure-treated wood, leather products, or industrial sources. Hexavalent chromium (Cr-VI) is the more toxic form of concern.
Hexavalent chromium exposure is associated with skin irritation and, with chronic exposure, more serious health effects. Surface testing helps identify contamination sources.
CCA pressure-treated wood, chrome-tanned leather, metal plating residues, and contaminated building materials.
No federal residential surface standard for chromium. Results compared to background and evaluated based on exposure scenarios.
28 analytes tested
Alternaria is a common outdoor mold that can enter homes and grow on damp surfaces. It is a frequent trigger for allergies and asthma.
Alternaria spores are allergenic and can trigger asthma symptoms, allergic rhinitis, and respiratory issues in sensitive individuals.
Outdoor air infiltration, damp windowsills, showers, and water-damaged materials.
No regulatory standard. Indoor levels significantly higher than outdoor suggest an indoor source requiring attention.
Ascospores are a broad category of fungal spores from many mold species. They are commonly found both indoors and outdoors.
Generally considered background fungi. Elevated indoor levels may indicate moisture issues or organic material decay.
Decaying plant matter, damp wood, paper products, and indoor moisture accumulation.
No specific limit. Indoor-to-outdoor ratio guides assessment. Elevated counts warrant moisture investigation.
These two mold genera are reported together in spore trap analysis because their spores look similar microscopically. Both are common indoors and can indicate water damage.
Can trigger allergic reactions, asthma, and respiratory symptoms. Some Aspergillus species can cause infections in immunocompromised individuals.
Water-damaged drywall, ceiling tiles, HVAC systems, dust, food, and decaying organic matter.
No regulatory limit. Indoor levels exceeding outdoor suggest moisture problems. Counts above 1,000 spores/m³ often warrant investigation.
Basidiospores come from mushrooms and related fungi. They are typically outdoor spores that enter homes through ventilation and open windows.
Generally considered allergens. High indoor levels typically reflect outdoor infiltration rather than indoor growth.
Outdoor air, decaying wood, mulch, and soil. High counts usually indicate outdoor sources, not indoor mold growth.
No standard. Indoor levels similar to outdoor are typical. Significantly higher indoor counts may suggest hidden wood decay.
These related mold genera are grouped together in spore trap analysis. They are typically outdoor plant pathogens but can grow indoors with sufficient moisture.
Can cause allergic reactions and asthma symptoms. Rarely associated with infections.
Outdoor air, water-damaged materials, houseplants, and damp surfaces.
No standard. Indoor levels exceeding outdoor suggest indoor moisture issues requiring remediation.
Chaetomium grows on cellulose-containing materials like drywall and wood when they remain wet for extended periods. Its presence is a clear indicator of chronic water damage.
Chaetomium can produce mycotoxins and is considered a potential health concern, especially for immunocompromised individuals. It indicates significant moisture problems.
Water-damaged drywall, ceiling tiles, baseboards, window frames, and any cellulose materials exposed to prolonged moisture.
No indoor standard. Any detection indoors is concerning and indicates need for immediate moisture investigation and remediation.
Cladosporium is one of the most common molds found both indoors and outdoors. It typically enters homes from outside but can also grow on damp surfaces.
Allergenic for sensitive individuals. Can trigger asthma, hay fever, and respiratory symptoms.
Outdoor air, HVAC systems, damp windowsills, bathrooms, and porous building materials.
No regulatory limit. Indoor levels moderately higher than outdoor may be acceptable. Very high indoor counts suggest moisture issues.
Curvularia is primarily an outdoor plant pathogen that can occasionally grow indoors on damp materials.
Can cause allergic reactions. Rarely associated with infections, primarily in immunocompromised individuals.
Outdoor air, water-damaged building materials, and soil brought indoors.
No standard. Indoor levels exceeding outdoor warrant moisture investigation.
Epicoccum is a common outdoor mold typically associated with plants and soil. Indoor detection usually indicates outdoor air infiltration.
Can act as an allergen for sensitive individuals. Generally not associated with significant health concerns.
Outdoor air, houseplants, soil, and decomposing plant material.
No standard. Indoor levels similar to outdoor are typical. High indoor counts suggest increased outdoor air infiltration.
Fusarium requires very wet conditions to grow and is often found after flooding or significant water damage. It is a clear indicator of high moisture.
Can cause allergic reactions and, in rare cases, infections in immunocompromised individuals. Some species produce mycotoxins.
Flooded areas, water-damaged carpet and padding, humidifiers, and continually wet building materials.
No standard. Any indoor detection suggests significant moisture problem requiring immediate investigation and remediation.
Memnoniella is closely related to Stachybotrys and requires similar wet conditions to grow on cellulose materials. It indicates chronic water damage.
Like Stachybotrys, Memnoniella can produce mycotoxins and is associated with health concerns in water-damaged buildings.
Chronically wet drywall, ceiling tiles, paper products, and cellulose-based building materials.
No indoor standard. Detection indoors indicates serious moisture problem requiring professional remediation.
Mucor is a fast-growing mold that thrives in very wet conditions. It is often found after water damage events like floods or leaks.
Can cause allergic reactions. In rare cases, can cause infections (mucormycosis) in severely immunocompromised individuals.
Recent water damage, flooded areas, leaking roofs, damp basements, and humidifiers.
No standard. Indoor detection indicates active water damage requiring urgent remediation.
Nigrospora is primarily an outdoor plant pathogen that occasionally appears in indoor air samples, usually from outdoor infiltration.
Generally considered a minor allergen. Not typically associated with significant health concerns.
Outdoor air, houseplants, and decaying plant material.
No standard. Indoor detection usually reflects outdoor sources rather than indoor growth.
Paecilomyces can grow on water-damaged materials and is sometimes found in insulation and air handling systems.
Can cause allergic reactions. Rarely associated with infections in immunocompromised individuals.
Water-damaged insulation, wood, paper, and HVAC systems.
No standard. Indoor detection suggests moisture issues or contaminated HVAC requiring investigation.
Pithomyces is primarily found outdoors on decaying vegetation. Indoor presence typically indicates outdoor air infiltration.
Generally considered an allergen. Not typically associated with significant indoor health concerns.
Outdoor air, decaying grass and vegetation, and soil.
No standard. Indoor levels similar to outdoor are typical.
These organisms are grouped together in spore trap analysis. They are primarily outdoor plant pathogens that enter homes through air infiltration.
Generally considered minor allergens. Not typically associated with significant health concerns.
Outdoor air, especially during agricultural seasons, and infiltration through windows and ventilation.
No standard. Presence usually indicates outdoor source, not indoor growth. High levels reflect seasonal outdoor patterns.
Scopulariopsis is found in soil and on decaying materials. It can occasionally grow indoors on damp surfaces.
Can cause allergic reactions. Rarely associated with nail infections and other opportunistic infections.
Soil, decaying organic matter, damp basement areas, and contaminated building materials.
No standard. Elevated indoor levels may suggest moisture issues or soil infiltration.
Often called black mold, Stachybotrys grows on cellulose materials like drywall and ceiling tiles that remain wet for extended periods. It is a clear indicator of chronic moisture problems.
Stachybotrys produces mycotoxins that may contribute to respiratory symptoms, particularly in buildings with severe water damage. Research continues on specific health impacts.
Chronically wet drywall, ceiling tiles, paper products, cardboard, and any cellulose materials with prolonged moisture exposure.
No regulatory standard. Any detection indoors indicates serious moisture problem requiring immediate professional remediation.
Trichoderma grows rapidly on wet cellulose materials and is often found after water damage. Its presence indicates recent or ongoing moisture issues.
Can cause allergic reactions. Some species produce enzymes that degrade building materials, worsening structural damage.
Water-damaged drywall, wood, paper products, and damp building materials.
No standard. Indoor detection suggests active or recent water damage requiring prompt remediation.
Torula is a dark-colored mold often found in bathrooms, kitchens, and other damp areas. It thrives in high-humidity environments.
Can cause allergic reactions and respiratory symptoms in sensitive individuals.
Bathrooms, showers, sinks, windowsills, and other consistently damp surfaces.
No standard. Elevated indoor levels indicate humidity control issues requiring improved ventilation or dehumidification.
Ulocladium requires very wet conditions similar to Stachybotrys and Chaetomium. Its presence indicates chronic water damage.
Can trigger allergic reactions and asthma symptoms. Indicates moisture conditions that support other concerning molds.
Water-damaged building materials, chronically wet surfaces, and areas with prolonged flooding or leaks.
No standard. Detection indoors is concerning and indicates need for immediate moisture investigation and remediation.
Wallemia is unique among molds for its ability to grow in relatively dry conditions. It is often found in homes with moderate humidity.
Generally considered a minor allergen. Can trigger respiratory symptoms in sensitive individuals.
Dust, stored grains, textiles, and surfaces with moderate humidity.
No standard. Presence may indicate elevated indoor humidity but not necessarily significant moisture problems.
Yeast-like spores represent various yeast organisms that can be present in indoor air, often from human activity, food, or moisture.
Generally not a health concern for healthy individuals. Can be problematic for immunocompromised people.
Food preparation, fermentation, human presence, and moisture accumulation.
No standard. Elevated levels may suggest moisture issues or need for improved air circulation.
Zygomycetes include fast-growing molds that require very wet conditions. Their presence indicates significant moisture or recent water damage.
Can cause allergic reactions. In rare cases, can cause serious infections (zygomycosis) in immunocompromised individuals.
Recent flooding, active water leaks, very damp basements, and water-damaged materials.
No standard. Detection indicates active moisture problem requiring immediate investigation and remediation.
Pet dander consists of tiny skin flakes and protein particles from dogs, cats, and other furry pets. It is a common indoor allergen that can remain airborne for long periods.
Major trigger for allergies and asthma. Can cause respiratory symptoms, eye irritation, and skin reactions in sensitive individuals.
Dogs, cats, rodents, and other furry pets. Circulates through HVAC systems and accumulates in carpets, upholstery, and bedding.
No regulatory standard. Presence correlates with pet ownership. Air purification and frequent cleaning can reduce levels.
Humans continuously shed skin cells, which become a major component of house dust. These particles can carry allergens and feed dust mites.
Not directly allergenic, but skin flakes serve as primary food source for dust mites, which are significant allergens.
Normal human activity. Accumulates in bedding, carpets, upholstery, and house dust.
No standard. Presence is normal. Regular cleaning and air filtration reduce accumulation.
Pet hair fibers can be detected in air samples and carry dander proteins, which are the actual allergens. The hair itself is a transport mechanism for allergens.
The proteins attached to pet hair trigger allergic reactions and asthma in sensitive individuals.
Dogs, cats, and other furry pets. Accumulates on surfaces and circulates through air handling systems.
No standard. Presence reflects pet ownership. HEPA filtration and frequent vacuuming help manage levels.
Pollen grains from trees, grasses, and flowering plants enter homes through windows, doors, and ventilation systems. They are a common seasonal allergen.
Major trigger for seasonal allergies (hay fever), causing sneezing, runny nose, itchy eyes, and respiratory symptoms.
Outdoor air infiltration, open windows, clothing, and pets. Houseplants can also contribute.
No standard. Indoor levels typically reflect outdoor pollen counts. Air filtration and keeping windows closed during high pollen days helps.
Various fibers from clothing, carpets, upholstery, insulation, and other materials can be detected in air samples. This category includes natural and synthetic fibers.
Generally not a significant health concern unless specific fibers like asbestos are present (which requires separate testing). Can cause minor respiratory irritation.
Clothing, carpets, upholstery, bedding, insulation, and building materials.
No standard for general fibers. Elevated fiber counts may indicate deteriorating materials or poor air filtration.
150 analytes tested
Benzene is a volatile organic compound formed from petroleum and found in gasoline, tobacco smoke, and some industrial processes. It is classified as a known human carcinogen.
Long-term benzene exposure is associated with increased risk of leukemia and blood disorders. Short-term exposure can cause drowsiness, dizziness, and headaches. The EPA and OSHA regulate benzene due to its cancer risk.
Attached garages, cigarette smoke, gasoline, auto emissions, paint, adhesives, and industrial processes.
No safe level for carcinogens. EPA ambient air guideline: less than 0.13 parts per billion (ppb) for long-term exposure.
Toluene is a common solvent used in paints, adhesives, and cleaning products. It readily evaporates at room temperature and can accumulate indoors.
Short-term toluene exposure can cause headaches, dizziness, and confusion. Long-term exposure may affect the nervous system, causing cognitive and motor function changes.
Paint, paint thinners, adhesives, nail polish, gasoline, and newly installed building materials.
OSHA workplace limit: 200 parts per million (ppm). Residential guidance much lower. NIOSH recommends minimizing exposure.
Xylene exists as three isomers (ortho, meta, para) commonly found together in indoor air. It is widely used as a solvent in paints, varnishes, and adhesives.
Exposure can cause headaches, dizziness, nausea, and confusion. Long-term exposure may affect the nervous system and liver.
Paint, varnishes, adhesives, carpet backing, gasoline, auto emissions, and permanent markers.
OSHA workplace limit: 100 ppm. EPA recommends minimizing residential exposure, especially for children.
Ethylbenzene is used in making styrene and is found in petroleum products. It is classified as a possible human carcinogen by IARC.
Short-term exposure can cause eye and throat irritation. Long-term exposure is being evaluated for potential cancer risk and effects on hearing and kidneys.
Gasoline, paint, varnishes, adhesives, carpet glue, and tobacco smoke.
EPA reference concentration: 1,000 micrograms per cubic meter (µg/m³) for chronic inhalation exposure.
Styrene is used to make polystyrene plastics, fiberglass, rubber, and resins. It off-gasses from these products and can accumulate indoors.
Acute exposure causes eye and respiratory irritation. Chronic exposure may affect the nervous system. IARC classifies styrene as a possible human carcinogen.
Building insulation, fiberglass, polystyrene (Styrofoam), plastic products, carpet backing, and some consumer products.
OSHA workplace limit: 100 ppm (8-hour). Lower levels recommended for residential settings.
Naphthalene is a polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon historically used in mothballs. It is also present in tobacco smoke and can form from combustion.
Exposure can cause headaches, nausea, and eye irritation. Chronic exposure may damage red blood cells. EPA classifies naphthalene as a possible human carcinogen.
Mothballs, tobacco smoke, wood burning, auto emissions, and industrial sources.
EPA chronic reference concentration: 3 µg/m³. California Proposition 65 lists naphthalene as a carcinogen.
Chloroform forms as a disinfection byproduct in chlorinated water and can off-gas during showers and dishwashing. It was formerly used as an anesthetic and solvent.
Acute exposure can cause dizziness, fatigue, and liver effects. EPA classifies chloroform as a probable human carcinogen.
Chlorinated tap water (evaporation during showers and cooking), swimming pools, and some cleaning products.
EPA reference concentration: 98 µg/m³. Minimize exposure by improving ventilation during water use.
TCE is a chlorinated solvent used for metal degreasing. It can contaminate groundwater and indoor air through vapor intrusion.
TCE is classified as carcinogenic to humans, associated with kidney cancer. Also affects the nervous system and liver.
Contaminated groundwater (vapor intrusion), old dry cleaning fluid, metal degreasing operations, and industrial sites.
EPA has established strict limits. Indoor air screening level: 2 µg/m³ for residential settings.
PCE is the primary solvent used in dry cleaning. It can enter homes from dry-cleaned clothes or nearby dry cleaning facilities.
EPA classifies PCE as likely carcinogenic to humans. Exposure can cause neurological effects, liver and kidney damage.
Dry-cleaned clothing, nearby dry cleaning facilities, contaminated groundwater (vapor intrusion), and some adhesives.
EPA reference concentration: 40 µg/m³. OSHA workplace limit: 100 ppm (much higher than residential guidance).
Dichloromethane is used in paint strippers, adhesive removers, and aerosol products. EPA has restricted its use due to health concerns.
Can cause dizziness, nausea, and in high concentrations, loss of consciousness. Metabolizes to carbon monoxide in the body. Probable human carcinogen.
Paint strippers, adhesive removers, aerosol products, and some cleaning agents.
EPA has banned consumer uses. Occupational limit: 25 ppm. Residential exposure should be minimized.
Carbon tetrachloride was once widely used as a refrigerant and cleaning agent. It is now banned in most applications due to ozone depletion and health concerns.
Damages liver and kidneys. EPA classifies it as a probable human carcinogen. Even low-level exposure raises health concerns.
Legacy use in old refrigerants and cleaning products, contaminated groundwater, and industrial emissions.
EPA reference concentration: 6.7 µg/m³. Production banned under Montreal Protocol.
Limonene is a naturally occurring terpene that gives citrus its characteristic scent. While generally considered low-toxicity, it can react with ozone to form irritating secondary pollutants.
Generally well-tolerated, but can cause skin and respiratory irritation in some individuals. Reaction products with ozone may be more concerning than limonene itself.
Citrus-scented cleaning products, air fresheners, personal care products, and natural citrus peels.
No established limit. Generally recognized as safe, but high concentrations in poorly ventilated spaces can cause irritation.
Pinenes are terpenes that give pine trees their characteristic scent. They are found in wood products, cleaners, and air fresheners.
Generally considered low toxicity but can cause respiratory irritation at high concentrations. May react with ozone to form secondary pollutants.
Pine cleaning products, wood furniture, essential oils, air fresheners, and fresh Christmas trees.
No established limit. Generally well-tolerated, but poor ventilation can lead to irritation.
Acetone is a widely used solvent found in nail polish remover, paint thinners, and cleaning products. It is one of the least toxic VOCs.
High concentrations can cause headaches, dizziness, and throat irritation. Generally considered low toxicity compared to other solvents.
Nail polish remover, paint, adhesives, cleaning products, and metabolic processes (naturally present at low levels).
OSHA workplace limit: 1,000 ppm (8-hour). Residential exposures typically much lower and not of major concern.
MEK is used as a solvent in paints, coatings, and adhesives. It evaporates quickly and can accumulate in poorly ventilated spaces.
Short-term exposure causes headaches, dizziness, and nausea. Can irritate eyes and respiratory system. Long-term exposure may affect the nervous system.
Paint, varnishes, adhesives, paint strippers, and some cleaning products.
OSHA workplace limit: 200 ppm. NIOSH recommends lower limits for residential settings.
2-Butoxyethanol is a glycol ether widely used in cleaning products and paints. It is absorbed through inhalation and can affect blood cells.
Can cause eye and respiratory irritation. High exposures may damage red blood cells and affect the liver and kidneys.
All-purpose cleaners, glass cleaners, floor cleaners, degreasers, and paint.
OSHA workplace limit: 50 ppm. EPA recommends using products with adequate ventilation.
1,4-Dichlorobenzene is used in mothballs, urinal blocks, and some air fresheners. It is classified as a possible human carcinogen.
Can cause headaches, dizziness, and liver effects. Long-term exposure is under evaluation for cancer risk. Avoid use in living spaces.
Mothballs, toilet bowl deodorizers, urinal blocks, and some air fresheners.
EPA chronic reference concentration: 800 µg/m³. California Proposition 65 lists it as a carcinogen.
Hexane is a petroleum-derived solvent used in adhesives and cleaning products. It is neurotoxic with chronic exposure.
Acute exposure causes dizziness and nausea. Chronic exposure can cause peripheral neuropathy (nerve damage in arms and legs).
Adhesives (especially for flooring and shoes), gasoline, paint thinners, and some cleaning products.
OSHA workplace limit: 500 ppm (8-hour). Residential exposures should be minimized, especially during flooring installation.
Carbon disulfide is used in industrial processes and can be found in contaminated air. It affects the nervous system and cardiovascular system.
Chronic exposure can cause neurological effects, cardiovascular disease, and reproductive issues.
Industrial emissions, rayon production, and contaminated air near industrial facilities.
OSHA workplace limit: 20 ppm. EPA reference concentration: 700 µg/m³.
Vinyl chloride is used to make PVC plastic. It is a known human carcinogen associated with liver cancer.
EPA classifies vinyl chloride as a known human carcinogen, particularly associated with angiosarcoma of the liver. Also causes liver damage.
Contaminated groundwater near PVC manufacturing or disposal sites (vapor intrusion), some industrial areas.
EPA ambient air limit: 2 µg/m³ (annual average). Residential vapor intrusion screening level much lower.